Following are the contents of our exam on Islam, using Huston Smith's The World's Religions as a guidebook in addition to The Koran and other Muslim texts as cited herein.
ISLAM
1. What does “Allah” mean? According
to Muslim tradition, how are Jews and Muslims related? How would you express
the term “the Seal of the Prophets”?
The literal meaning of Allah is “the God,” the definite article
al translated as “the,” and llah, translated as God. The article is “the” and not “a,” because
according to Islam there is but one God.
Islam is one of the three Abrahamic
faiths, along with Judaism and Christianity.
The Arabs consider themselves a Semitic people, meaning that they, like
the Jews are descended from Shem, the son of Noah (Semite means descendant of
Shem). Muslims believe that Adam was the
first man, and his descendants led to Noah, and then Shem. Abraham was among the descendants of Shem,
and Muslims consider themselves sons of Abraham. This brings to mind the children’s song, Father Abraham had many sons, and many sons
had Father Abraham, and I am one of them, and so are you, so let’s all praise
the Lord! In fact, the name of the
faith, Islam, was inspired by Abraham’s
willingness to sacrifice his son Isaac.
The root s-l-m means “peace,”
but it has another meaning, “surrender,” and so the name Islam in the deepest sense means “the peace that comes when one’s
life is surrendered to God.”
Muhammad is believed by Muslims to
be the final and definitive prophet in a line of authentic prophets of God,
which includes Abraham, Moses, Samuel, Isaiah and Jesus. Muhammad is “The Seal of the Prophets”
because Muslims believe that no other prophet will come after him.
2. Read “The Migration that led to
Victory.” Respond to what seems most
important here. After reading this unit,
what one thing has challenged or
changed your previous ideas about Islam?
The Hijra took place in the year 622;
Muhammad and seventy families migrated from Mecca to the city that was
then known as Yathrib, and was later called Medinat al-Nabi (the City of the
Prophet) and eventually Medina (the city).
The historical thrust of this
section is that Islam, as a revolutionary and unifying belief system, needed a
safe place to take root and flourish so that it could gain power and
momentum. Muhammad recognized this need
and was thus motivated by it, simultaneously with the need to flee for his own
safety, to establish Islam in the city of Medina. In Medina, Muhammad was able to bring the
five conflicting tribes of the city (three of which were Jewish) into one
cooperative whole. When he later
returned to Mecca, he rededicated the temple there to Allah, and presided over
the mass conversion of the city he had fled only eight years before. What is even more extraordinary is that ten
years after the Hijra, he had unified
virtually all of Arabia under one ideological banner, the newly established
religion of Islam. The effectiveness of
Muhammad’s leadership has been attributed in great part to his extraordinary
humility, accessibility and his passion for justice and mercy.
The one lesson from this section
which has most challenged my former ideas about Islam is the fact that it was
originally conceived as a unifying tradition, with both secular and religious
elements. I had always thought of Islam
as a faith that defined itself by strict orthodoxy and standing apart from all
other belief systems, but in its inception Islam brought about unity and peace
through fostering cooperation among competing groups.
3. What belief concerning the
afterlife unifies all Muslims? Consider the quotations from the Qur’ an about
the life to come. Pick one sentence that
strikes you most, concerning the afterlife.
Muslims are united in a
belief that in the afterlife, every individual soul will be held accountable
for how well it has observed God’s commands during its time on the Earth; so
its situation in the afterlife is directly causally connected to everything it
has done while living in the world.
Muslims believe in Heaven, Hell and the Day of Judgment. Personal responsibility is inescapable in
Islam, and it is clear that Muslims are to live with the idea of punishment and
reward in the afterlife at the forefront of their minds: “We have hung every
man’s actions around his neck, and on the last day a wide-open book will be
laid before him” (17:13).
4. What are the minimum and customary
times that a Muslim states the Creed? What is the name of the Creed?
The Creed is the Islam
confession of faith, which is known as the Shahadah. The English translation is this: “There is no
god but God, and Muhammad is His Prophet.”
The Creed is one of the Five Pillars of Islam. Each Muslim is required to recite the Creed
“at least once during his or her lifetime…correctly, slowly, thoughtfully,
aloud, with full understanding and with heartfelt conviction” (Huston Smith,
244). In reality, Muslims cite the creed
often, as an anchor in the stormy seas of human experience, when troubles of
all sorts threaten to overwhelm them; the Creed is recited to gain strength and
comfort when loss is experienced, at the time of death and during illness,
severe stress or frightening uncertainty.
5. Smith discusses two affirmations in
the Muslim Creed: “There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is His prophet.” Briefly clarify the meaning of these
affirmations.
The first affirmation
is a definitive statement of the basis of monotheism; there is but one God and
that God is Allah. The second
affirmation proclaims the Muslims’ firm belief in the legitimacy of Muhammad
and the supreme authority of the Koran, the text he transmitted to humankind.
6. What are five prohibitions of
traditional Muslim practice?
There are a great number of
proscriptions and prohibitions within Islamic law, but five major prohibitions
are given extra emphasis, and have specifically ordained punishments called hudud.
The five prohibitions punishable by the hudud are: i) unlawful sexual intercourse, ii) false accusation of
unlawful sexual intercourse, iii) consumption of alcohol, iv) theft, and v)
highway robbery.
7. Smith discusses the status of women
in Islam. Briefly describe the
following:
A.
Infanticide:
The
status of Arabian women before Muhammad was deplorable by any standards. The birth of a daughter was considered a
misfortune, and female infants and small children were often killed as a means
to dispose of an unwanted burden. The
koranic reforms forbade infanticide (the intentional killing of infants).
B.
Marriage:
Arabian women were treated as chattel and the sexual act was often perpetrated
in violence with no sacred element.
Islam sanctified marriage, making it the only lawful context of sexual
intercourse. The Koran also requires a
woman’s free consent before marriage.
Muhammad specified that divorce is only permissible as a last resort.
C.
Polygamy:
The
more correct term here would by Polygyny, since Islam permits and delineates
rules for the practice of a man having more than one wife. A Muslim man can have up to four wives
simultaneously, but monogamy is the ideal relationship described in the
Koran. Historical circumstances often
made polygyny the more loving or compassionate arrangement for women; for
example, wars that decimated the male population left many women without
material support or protection. The
Koran emphasizes the importance of equality of love and esteem whenever there
is more than one wife: “If you cannot deal equitably and justly with [more than
one wife], you shall marry only one.”
Today, polygyny is uncommon in Muslim communities, and many couples
insert a clause in the marriage deed that explicitly forbids the taking of
another spouse.
8. Smith discusses Muslim teachings on
the use of force. Clarify each of these
in one sentence each.
A.
Religious
toleration: Muhammad created a charter for governing
the city of Medina that included religious toleration as a founding principle;
Muslims “regard that document as the first charter of freedom of conscience in
human history and the authoritative model for those of every subsequent Muslim
state” (Huston Smith, 256). People of other faiths were permitted freedom of
worship, equal rights with Muslim citizens with respect to assistance and “good
offices,” and they were also protected from harassment and injury. The Koran teaches along these same lines:
To every one we have
given a law and a way….And if God had pleased, he would have made [all
humankind] one people [people of one religion]. But he hath done otherwise,
that He might try you in that which He hath severally given unto you: wherefore
press forward in good works. Unto God
shall ye return, and He will tell you that concerning which ye disagree (5:48).
B.
Jihad:
Muslims
“deny that Islam’s record of intolerance and aggression is greater than that of
the other major religions” (Huston Smith, 257).
Jihad literally means
“exertion.” The word is usually
interpreted to mean “holy war.” Muslims
claim that their highest ideal is peace, and this is reflected in their
greeting, as-salamu ‘alaykum, “peace
be upon you.” The most important jihad in Islam is the battle with the
enemy that resides with in each of us, the propensity for evil actions.
9. Smith describes three Sufi
paths. Describe each in one sentence.
A.
Love:
Sufis
are very well known for their love poetry.
They believe that God’s love is the primary force in the universe, and
that our deepest longing draws us toward the heart of God. Love as a path to the Divine is the practice
of steeping oneself deeply within that longing and feeling of separation,
allowing oneself to be thereby drawn further into the deepest form of union, an
eternal love affair. Rumi’s verse
summarizes this phenomenon:
Never does the lover
seek without being sought by his beloved.
When the lightning of love has shot into this
heart, know that there is love in that
heart….
Mark well the text: “He
loves them and they love Him.” (Koran, 5:59)
B.
Ecstasy:
The
etymology of the word “ecstatic” teaches us that it refers to a sort of
standing outside of oneself (ekstasis in
Greek, ek meaning “out” and sta- meaning “to stand”). Ecstatic Sufis enter into trancelike states
where they become completely abstracted from self; they become dissociated from
their usual identities, forgetting all self-consciousness and even losing the
sense of where they are or what is happening to them. They look to Muhammad’s Night Journey through
the seven heavens and into the Divine Presence as a sort of model for the
arrival at their altered state. Mystical
theology uses a phrase, “infused grace,” referring to the gift of this altered
state, which is something that is not acquired through strain and effort, but
involves a process of receiving. Huston
Smith points out that the benefits of these practices must be brought back down
to Earth: “…transcendence must be made immanent; the God who is encountered
apart from the world must also be encountered within it” (261).
C.
Intuition:
The Arabic word used to describe this Sufi path is ma’rifah, which means mental knowledge, and refers to a mystical
intuitive knowledge of spiritual truth. This
knowledge is acquired through sincere effort and spiritual practice which
focuses on the individual’s internal experience. Ma’rifah
requires the use of what Sufis call “the eye of the heart.” The physical eye
sees the objects in the world and the eye of the heart is able to recognize the
Divine represented thereby; Sufis following this path believe that the physical
world functions as a symbol of a more exalted, spiritual reality. The Sufi mystic al-Ghazali defined symbolism
as “the science of the relation between multiple levels of reality” (Huston
Smith, 262). For example, Muslims generally interpret the gesture of removing
one’s shoes before entering a mosque as a symbol of leaving worldly pursuits at
the door before coming into the sacred presence; Sufis go one step further by
saying that the gesture also symbolizes the removal of everything which
separates the soul from God.
Sufis following any or
all of these three paths are esoteric Muslims, while the majority fall into the
category of exoteric Muslims. Esoteric
Muslims developed a doctrine called Fana,
meaning “extinction”; it is the quest to transcend the finite self in
Allah, so that the Sufi Muslim may rid him or herself of
self-consciousness. This calls to mind
the Buddhist belief in “no self,” or the aim of letting go of a separate self
with a private agenda. Sufis claim that
if the self becomes empty, only God remains there. Sufis have gone so far as to the enhance the
basic Muslim creed, “There is no God but God,” by saying instead, “There is nothing but God.” To concretize this reality, Sufis engage in
the practice of dhikr, the repetition
of God’s name, whenever possible—sometimes silently, sometimes aloud and
sometimes chanted within a group. This
is a transformative and often ecstatic practice that works with the
subconscious mind to erode the importance of self.
10. Why is Sufism considered
controversial, or heretical, by Orthodox Islam?
Because Sufism is
esoteric, it draws authority from sources other than the Koran and the
representation of the external God by traditional Muslim authorities. Sufis, like the mystics of other traditions,
seek to unite with the divine Essence within, and some Muslims see this as blasphemous. This quote from Huston Smith puts the point
very well: Mysticism breaks through the
boundaries that protect the faith of the typical believer. In doing so it moves into an unconfined
region that, fulfilling though it is for some, carries dangers for those who
are unqualified for its teachings (264).
11. Describe one feature of the Islamic
tradition or teachings that is most meaningful to you personally, and how it
relates to your own experience and self-understanding.
Because I already consider myself a
mystic, the Sufi tradition of Islam resonates deeply with me. I am particularly drawn to the Sufi paths of
love and intuition as a means of union with the Divine. I have been a longtime reader of Sufi love poetry,
and my own spiritual practices closely mirror many Sufi practices. I would like to try Sufi whirling, which is
an ecstatic movement practice; whirling appeals to me since I find yoga asanas
and dance to be spiritual practices. I
also love connecting with God through chanting mantras; when we chanted on the
day of our Islam lectures, I found a great sense of peace and connection
through that practice. I truly believe
in achieving a heart connection with God by transcending ego and
self-consciousness, and I have a particular aversion to faith practices which
are solely exoteric and orthodox. I am
grateful for the beautifully enlightening contributions of Sufism to modern
spirituality.
12. Identify the following names:
Muhammad:
Born
in the year 570 in the Arabian city of Mecca, Muhammad (also written, Mohammed)
is the Prophet of Islam, referred to by Muslims as “The Seal of the Prophets”
since he is considered the ultimate in the line of prophets going all the way
back to Abraham. He is the founder of
the Islamic faith, which he instituted after he transmitted the Koran. His name means, “Praiseworthy.”
Khadija:
She
was Muhammad’s first wife, and a very successful and well-respected
businesswoman. He was fifteen years her
junior and worked in her service in the caravan business before marrying
her. Muhammad was Khadija’s third
husband, and she had children by both previous marriages. Their marriage was a very happy one, and she
comforted and supported him as he prepared for his ministry. “Rejoice, O dear husband, and be of good
cheer. You will be the prophet of this
people.” She is sometimes called the Mother of Islam.
Fatimah:
She
was a daughter of Muhammad and Khadija, wife of Ali and mother of Hasan and
Husain. She is the only member of Muhammad’s
family that gave him descendants. She
was very close to her father’s side and supported him in his various
trials. She is greatly venerated by
Muslims, and verses from the Koran are associated with her and her household,
although she is not mentioned by name in the Koran.
13. What are the Five Pillars of Islam?
The foundational requirements for
any practicing Muslim are referred to as “The Five Pillars of Islam.”
i.
Shahadah: This
is a profession of belief in Allah, the one true God, and his Messenger,
Muhammad. This powerful testament of
faith underlies every other belief and practice within Islam. It consists of one sentence which every
Muslim must state at least once in his/her lifetime in Arabic, aloud, with
complete sincerity and full understanding: “There is no God but Allah and
Muhammad is His Messenger.” In Arabic: Ashhadu Alla Ilaha Illa Allah Wa Ashhadu Anna
Muhammad Rasulu Allah. In actuality, Muslims pronounce these
words many times over the course of a lifetime, especially the first half, at
any time when they are crying out to God, in praise, in despair, in awe or in
fear, or asking for divine intervention: La
ilaha illa ‘llah.
ii.
Salah:
Prayer is to be a constant and foundational practice in the life of every
Muslim, to maintain connection to and consciousness of God and to keep all of
life in perspective. The Prophet
Muhammad (Sal Allahu Alayhi Wa Sallam)
said, “The first act that the slave (of Allah) will be accountable for on the
day of judgement will be the prayer. If it is good, then the rest of his acts
will be good. And if it is evil, then the rest of his acts will be evil” (Hadith Qudsi 9, from 40 Hadith Qudsi). Salah
means “prayer,” and Muslims are asked to pray five times per day, at dawn (Salat al-Fajr), mid day (Salat al-Zuhr), late afternoon (Salat al-Asr), sunset (Salat al-Maghrib) and nightfall (Salat al-Isha). These particular times for prayer are not
strictly binding--flexibility in going about one’s daily duties and activities
in the secular world is factored into contemporary Muslim practice, but under
normal conditions Muslims should engage in prayers five times per day. Within Islam, congregational worship is not
as important as it is in Judaism and Christianity; however, the Friday noon
prayer brings Muslims to their mosques in large numbers where they can be seen
standing shoulder to shoulder kneeling and prostrating toward Mecca, their foreheads
repeatedly touching the floor. Praying
in the direction of Mecca gives all Muslims a sense of common fellowship with
brothers and sisters around the world, even when praying alone. Praise, gratitude and supplication are the
common elements of all Muslim prayer.
iii.
Zakah:
The third pillar of Islam is charity.
The word zakat means “growth”
and “purification,” emphasizing the increased social welfare and economic
growth that result from charitable giving, as well as the purification of the
possessions of those who give.
Charitable giving is required of all Muslims, and this applies to
holdings as well as material goods; middle and upper income people are to give
one fortieth of the value of all they possess.
Zakat is not comparable to the
tithe of Jews and Christians because it is not primarily directed at the
maintenance of religious institutions.
iv.
Sawm:
Every year, during the month of Ramadan,
Muslims must observe Sawm by
abstaining from food, drink and sexual intercourse from dawn until dusk. In addition, Muslims are expected to refrain
from anger, envy, greed, lust, gossip, violence, bad language and other
inappropriate thoughts and actions. Fasting is meant to encourage Muslims to
seek nearness to Allah, be patient, and learn the hardships faced by the less
fortunate. Sawm, and really any kind of religious fasting, teaches
self-discipline, reminds believers of their dependence on God and sensitizes
compassion.
v.
Hajj:
The fifth pillar is pilgrimage. Every
Muslim who is economically and physically able to do so is expected to journey
to Mecca, the place of Allah’s climactic revelation. Hajj
occurs every year during the month of Dhu’l-Hijjah. The driving purpose behind the pilgrimage requirement
is to strengthen and emphasize the pilgrim’s devotion to God, but additional
benefits include a reminder of human equality and the bolstering of peaceful
international and intercultural relations.
14. Define “Purdah”: This
word from the Persian language means “curtain,” and refers to the Muslim
practice of concealing women from men.
Within different cultural and national Muslim groups, the practice of purdah varies widely, and takes two main
forms: a) a requirement for women to conceal and cover their bodies, and b) the
physical segregation of the sexes. The
example of purdah most familiar to us
in the West is the female practice of covering the head and neck with a scarf
or other fabric in any location outside of the home.
15. Write a response to a selection of
your choice from The Koran.
And they say, ‘None shall enter Paradise unless he
be a Jew or a Christian.’ These are their wishful beliefs. Say, ‘Produce your
evidence if what you say is true!’
Nay, whosoever surrenders his whole being unto God, and is a doer of good,
shall have his reward from his Lord; on them shall be no fear, neither shall
they sorrow.’ ‘The Jews say, ‘The Christians have no valid grounds’; the
Christians say, ‘The Jews have no valid grounds’; and both quote the Book [of
God]. So do those who have no knowledge [of the Book] speak like them. But it
is God who will decide between them on the Day of Resurrection about all on
which they differ (al-Baqarah 2: 111-13).
This
passage from the longest chapter of the Koran is perfectly suited to our
interfaith studies in the pursuit of common understanding and shared
values. It perfectly situates Islam as
third in the line of the Abrahamic traditions, following Judaism and
Christianity. Just as the Jews were
quick to condemn Christian beliefs and the Christians insisted that a religion
based on Christ was the only way to salvation, the newer religion of Islam was
inevitably attacked by both groups. I am
reminded of what is written above under Question 8 regarding the peaceful
coexistence of many faiths, and the idea, from the Koran, that God Himself gave
the various religions severally to the world’s peoples--it would be in vain
that we try to answer questions for all of humanity which God alone can answer
according to His own timing. This
passage underscores a universally relevant and practical teaching for believers
of all faiths: our religious devotion and spiritual practice are designed to
bring us nearer to God and to thereby improve our relationships with our world
and with one another, and any time we may spend opposing or finding fault with
other traditions is wasted time. Nothing
positive can come of dogmatic insistence on the superiority of any faith; our
time is better spent perfecting our own devotion and supporting all others who
share with us a belief in the Divine and the pursuit of spiritual
enlightenment.
16. Write
a description of your Islam site visit.
I
attended Juma service at a Sufi worship center in the Tribeca neighborhood of
New York City. The Nur Ashki Jerrahi
Community was recommended to me by a classmate who shares my predilection
for mystical spiritual practices and beliefs, and this was the main reason I
chose to visit a Sufi order rather than worship in a more traditional mosque,
although I must admit that I did try contacting two mosques in my area about
attending prayer services as a visitor, and never received a call back or an
e-mail reply.
I was
very optimistic and excited about my visit to the Juma service because of
everything I was able to read on the Nur Ashki Jerrahi website, and also
because a local friend who shares my passion for religion and spirituality made
the trip into the city with me. We ended
up staying for two services and all in all it was a wonderful, memorable
day.
Juma’h simply means “the gathering on Friday,” and refers to the noontime
prayer and worship service which includes a sermon. The building was situated between two bar/restaurants
on a typical NYC block, and no one would know that it was a Sufi Muslim worship
center were it not for the small, unobtrusive sign on the door, and a poster of
Rumi with a verse that I neglected to remember or write down. My friend and I covered our heads and necks
with scarves before entering with a group of Muslim men. Once we were inside, a white, American male
introduced himself to us and showed us a spot to leave our shoes and
belongings. He explained that as women,
we would remain separate from the men in the service and sit in a designated
area in the back. He was very friendly
and welcoming and offered to answer any questions we may have after the
service. We promptly went inside and sat
down on the floor which was covered with a very large Persian rug. Another woman came in after us and performed
a few discreet prayers and prostrations.
She smiled sweetly at us. Men
continued to file into the worship space, coming from work or school. The room began to fill up quickly so the Imam
instructed the men to move up and get closer together on the floor. There were chairs lined up along the sides of
the room where elderly or more infirm men were seated.
The services consisted of a call to
prayer (azaan), followed by two sermons (khutba) , in English, followed by a
short formal worship (salat) in congregation.
We heard two different Imams give sermons since we stayed for both
services. The most remarkable aspects of
the visit for me were i) the experience of being one of the very few women
present (in the second service there were two other women, and only one in the
first), ii) the experience of praying and worshipping with a large group of men
who were for the most part ethnically and racially all different from me (there
were five total white men out of a group of about 60 men), and iii) the
physical experience of standing shoulder to shoulder with Muslims, facing the
East, and touching my forehead to the floor repeatedly during the Salat.
I very much enjoyed the services and delighted in the experience of
being different yet clearly welcomed. At
the end of the first service the Muslim woman who had prayed next to us kissed
us each on the cheek and introduced herself.
The other women had warm smiles and the man who welcomed us to worship
gave me a business card following the service and offered to be contacted for
further questions or an interview.
Both sermons were perfectly in line
with what I would have expected from Sufis, focusing on consciousness of and
devotion to God in spite of the many distractions of our human life, and
reminding us all of God’s continual love, forgiveness, mercy and grace.
In fact, during the first service
we were told that this is the month of mercy and grace in Islam. It had been a week of rainy days, and the
Imam likened the rain to the mercy and grace of Allah poured out over the
Earth, to revitalize it, and poured out over us to revitalize our faith. He also warned us against descending into
despair when we lose consciousness of God.
He spoke about doubt, fear and depression as symptoms of being overly
focused on ourselves and on the material world rather than keeping our focus on
Allah. He said that God dispenses His mercy
and grace to those who remain conscious of Him, and this consciousness was not
described as a sort of remembrance of religious actions, but rather as a
devotional way of life and a remembrance of the divine within as well as
without. The Imam who delivered the
second message spoke about seeing the face of Allah in whichever direction we
turn, East, West, North and South. He
referenced a saying of Mohammed that true religion comes from the heart. He spoke of human beings as clay vessels, as God
formed the first man, Adam, from clay.
He asked, “Who is in that vessel?
Who is seeing with these eyes and hearing with these ears, and whose
heart is it in this clay vessel?” He
suggested that it is Allah who animates our souls, and Allah who moves within
us from our hearts. He said that if we
cannot witness Allah in our own hearts, it is because we are distracted by the
world and struggling to become conscious of Allah. Similarly to many modern spiritual teachers
in diverse traditions, he counseled reducing distractions and living more
mindfully so that we can become more conscious of the presence of God in our
hearts.
